6 research outputs found

    Topic-based classification and identification of global trends for startup companies

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    Altres ajuts: Acord transformatiu CRUE-CSICUnidad de excelencia MarΓ­a de Maeztu CEX2019-000940-MTo foresee global economic trends, one needs to understand the present startup companies that soon may become new market leaders. In this paper, we explore textual descriptions of more than 250 thousand startups in the Crunchbase database. We analyze the 2009-2019 period by using topic modeling. We propose a novel classification of startup companies free from expert bias that contains 38 topics and quantifies the weight of each of these topics for all the startups. Taking the year of establishment and geographical location of the startups into account, we measure which topics were increasing or decreasing their share over time, and which of them were predominantly present in Europe, North America, or other regions. We find that the share of startups focused on data analytics, social platforms, and financial transfers, and time management has risen, while an opposite trend is observed for mobile gaming, online news, and online social networks as well as legal and professional services. We also identify strong regional differences in topic distribution, suggesting certain concentration of the startups. For example, sustainable agriculture is presented stronger in South America and Africa, while pharmaceutics, in North America and Europe. Furthermore, we explore which pairs of topics tend to co-occur more often together, quantify how multisectoral the startups are, and which startup classes attract more investments. Finally, we compare our classification to the one existing in the Crunchbase database, demonstrating how we improve it

    Theoretical approaches to identifying creative industries

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    Relevance. The relevance of the study is determined by the growing importance of creative industries in the global economy, which necessitates the formation of common approaches to identifying and defining creative industries to make effective management decisions at the state level. The lack of a unified approach to defining the conceptual and methodological apparatus necessitates additional research on this topic.Purpose of the study. The purpose of this study is to conduct a comparative analysis of approaches to identifying creative industries that have developed in the international and domestic academic community.Data and methods. The study is based on the Scoping review method, which consists of a full analysis of the existing literature in the context of key concepts of a given area of research. The international bibliographic database Scopus was used to select publications for the review. To consider the national specifics of research, the sample was expanded to include articles from the Russian Science Citation Index (RSCI).Results. The article reviews and summarizes the existing scientific approaches to identifying creative industries, highlights the main debatable issues of terminology in the field of the creative economy. Based on a comprehensive review of the approaches of international and domestic researchers, the article presents a system of criteria for identifying creative industries, which are differentiated by types of sources, specifics, and results. The application of this system of criteria will allow us to determine the boundaries of creative industries and distinguish creative industries from the general array of economic sectors. Conclusion. Systematization of theoretical approaches to defining and identifying creative industries is a necessary condition for their further classification and evaluation. The proposed system of criteria is a synthesis of existing approaches, which makes it universal and suggests the possibility of its practical application for solving a wide range of tasks related to managerial decision-making in the field of creative economy development

    ВлияниС эффСктов пСрСтСкания Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ Π½Π° ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡ‚ΠΈΡ‡Π΅ΡΠΊΡƒΡŽ Π½Π΅ΠΎΠΏΡ€Π΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ, Ρ†Π΅Π½Ρ‹ Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ, Π±ΠΈΡ€ΠΆΡƒ ΠΈ Ρ€Ρ‹Π½ΠΊΠΈ Π΄Ρ€Π°Π³ΠΎΡ†Π΅Π½Π½Ρ‹Ρ… ΠΌΠ΅Ρ‚Π°Π»Π»ΠΎΠ² Π² российской экономикС

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    Российская экономика β€” это Ρ€Π°Π·Π²ΠΈΠ²Π°ΡŽΡ‰Π°ΡΡΡ экономика, ΠΏΡ€ΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ΄Π½Ρ‹Π΅ рСсурсы ΠΈΠ³Ρ€Π°ΡŽΡ‚ Π΄ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠ½ΠΈΡ€ΡƒΡŽΡ‰ΡƒΡŽ Ρ€ΠΎΠ»ΡŒ Π² экономичСском Ρ€Π°Π·Π²ΠΈΡ‚ΠΈΠΈ страны. Π‘Π»Π΅Π΄ΠΎΠ²Π°Ρ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎ, Π½Π° Π½Π°Ρ†ΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½ΡƒΡŽ экономику влияСт Π·Π½Π°Ρ‡ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½Π°Ρ Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ Ρ†Π΅Π½ Π½Π° рСсурсы. Π’ ΡΡ‚Π°Ρ‚ΡŒΠ΅ исслСдуСтся влияниС эффСктов пСрСтСкания Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ Π½Π° ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡ‚ΠΈΡ‡Π΅ΡΠΊΡƒΡŽ Π½Π΅ΠΎΠΏΡ€Π΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ, ΠΌΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹Π΅ Ρ†Π΅Π½Ρ‹ Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ, ΠΎΠ±ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½Ρ‹ΠΉ курс, Ρ„ΠΎΠ½Π΄ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹Π΅ индСксы ΠΈ Ρ†Π΅Π½Ρ‹ Π½Π° ΠΌΠ΅Ρ‚Π°Π»Π»Ρ‹ Π² российской экономикС Π·Π° ΠΏΠ΅Ρ€ΠΈΠΎΠ΄ со 2 июля 2008 Π³. ΠΏΠΎ 15 мая 2020 Π³. Для Π°Π½Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·Π° использована модСль Π²Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Π½ΠΎΠΉ авторСгрСссии с ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΡΡŽΡ‰ΠΈΠΌΠΈΡΡ Π²ΠΎ Π²Ρ€Π΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΠΈ ΠΏΠ°Ρ€Π°ΠΌΠ΅Ρ‚Ρ€Π°ΠΌΠΈ (TVP-VAR). ΠŸΡ€ΠΎΠ²Π΅Π΄Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ΅ эмпиричСскоС исслСдованиС ΠΏΠΎΠΊΠ°Π·Ρ‹Π²Π°Π΅Ρ‚, Ρ‡Ρ‚ΠΎ Ρ†Π΅Π½Π° Π½Π° Π·ΠΎΠ»ΠΎΡ‚ΠΎ, политичСская Π½Π΅ΠΎΠΏΡ€Π΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ, Ρ†Π΅Π½Π° Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ ΠΈ Ρ„ΠΎΠ½Π΄ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹ΠΉ индСкс ΡΠ²Π»ΡΡŽΡ‚ΡΡ источниками Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ. Π’ Ρ‚ΠΎ ΠΆΠ΅ врСмя, Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ влияСт Π½Π° Ρ‚Π°ΠΊΠΈΠ΅ Ρ„Π°ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Ρ‹, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΠ°Π»Π»Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΉ, ΠΏΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ½Π°, сСрСбро ΠΈ ΠΎΠ±ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½Ρ‹ΠΉ курс рубля. Рыночная капитализация являСтся чистым Π΄ΠΎΠ½ΠΎΡ€ΠΎΠΌ, Ρ€Ρ‹Π½ΠΎΠΊ сСрСбра β€” чистым ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡƒΡ‡Π°Ρ‚Π΅Π»Π΅ΠΌ. Палладий стал источником чистой Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ послС ΠΌΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ финансового кризиса. ΠΠ΅ΠΎΠΏΡ€Π΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ российской экономичСской ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡ‚ΠΈΠΊΠΈ Π±Ρ‹Π»Π° основным источником Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ с 2008 ΠΏΠΎ 2014 Π³Π³., ΠΎΠ΄Π½Π°ΠΊΠΎ впослСдствии Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ Π΄Ρ€ΡƒΠ³ΠΈΡ… Ρ„Π°ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€ΠΎΠ² ΠΎΠΊΠ°Π·Ρ‹Π²Π°Π»Π° Π½Π° Π½Π΅Π΅ большСС влияниС. Π’ 2014 Π³., ΠΊΠΎΠ³Π΄Π° Ρ†Π΅Π½Π° Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ Π·Π½Π°Ρ‡ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎ снизилась, Ρ†Π΅Π½Π° Π½Π° Π·ΠΎΠ»ΠΎΡ‚ΠΎ Π±Ρ‹Π»Π° основным источником Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ для Π΄Ρ€ΡƒΠ³ΠΈΡ… Ρ€Ρ‹Π½ΠΊΠΎΠ². Полная ΡΠ²ΡΠ·Π°Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ Ρ€Ρ‹Π½ΠΊΠΎΠ² Π² Π·Π½Π°Ρ‡ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΠΉ стСпСни зависит ΠΎΡ‚ ряда экзогСнных потрясСний, Ρ‚Π°ΠΊΠΈΡ… ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ экономичСскиС санкции, Π²Π²Π΅Π΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Ρ€Π΅ΠΆΠΈΠΌΠ° ΠΏΠ»Π°Π²Π°ΡŽΡ‰Π΅Π³ΠΎ ΠΎΠ±ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ курса, ΠΏΠ°Π΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Ρ†Π΅Π½ Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ. Π˜ΡΡ…ΠΎΠ΄Ρ ΠΈΠ· прСдставлСнного Π°Π½Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·Π°, сформулировано нСсколько Ρ€Π΅ΠΊΠΎΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΄Π°Ρ†ΠΈΠΉ для ΠΏΠΎΡ€Ρ‚Ρ„Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½Ρ‹Ρ… инвСсторов ΠΈ стСйкхолдСров Π² российских Ρ€Π΅Π³ΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Ρ…

    ВлияниС эффСктов пСрСтСкания Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ Π½Π° ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡ‚ΠΈΡ‡Π΅ΡΠΊΡƒΡŽ Π½Π΅ΠΎΠΏΡ€Π΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ, Ρ†Π΅Π½Ρ‹ Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ, Π±ΠΈΡ€ΠΆΡƒ ΠΈ Ρ€Ρ‹Π½ΠΊΠΈ Π΄Ρ€Π°Π³ΠΎΡ†Π΅Π½Π½Ρ‹Ρ… ΠΌΠ΅Ρ‚Π°Π»Π»ΠΎΠ² Π² российской экономикС

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    Российская экономика β€” это Ρ€Π°Π·Π²ΠΈΠ²Π°ΡŽΡ‰Π°ΡΡΡ экономика, ΠΏΡ€ΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ΄Π½Ρ‹Π΅ рСсурсы ΠΈΠ³Ρ€Π°ΡŽΡ‚ Π΄ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠ½ΠΈΡ€ΡƒΡŽΡ‰ΡƒΡŽ Ρ€ΠΎΠ»ΡŒ Π² экономичСском Ρ€Π°Π·Π²ΠΈΡ‚ΠΈΠΈ страны. Π‘Π»Π΅Π΄ΠΎΠ²Π°Ρ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎ, Π½Π° Π½Π°Ρ†ΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Π»ΡŒΠ½ΡƒΡŽ экономику влияСт Π·Π½Π°Ρ‡ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½Π°Ρ Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ Ρ†Π΅Π½ Π½Π° рСсурсы. Π’ ΡΡ‚Π°Ρ‚ΡŒΠ΅ исслСдуСтся влияниС эффСктов пСрСтСкания Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ Π½Π° ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡ‚ΠΈΡ‡Π΅ΡΠΊΡƒΡŽ Π½Π΅ΠΎΠΏΡ€Π΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ, ΠΌΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹Π΅ Ρ†Π΅Π½Ρ‹ Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ, ΠΎΠ±ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½Ρ‹ΠΉ курс, Ρ„ΠΎΠ½Π΄ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹Π΅ индСксы ΠΈ Ρ†Π΅Π½Ρ‹ Π½Π° ΠΌΠ΅Ρ‚Π°Π»Π»Ρ‹ Π² российской экономикС Π·Π° ΠΏΠ΅Ρ€ΠΈΠΎΠ΄ со 2 июля 2008 Π³. ΠΏΠΎ 15 мая 2020 Π³. Для Π°Π½Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·Π° использована модСль Π²Π΅ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Π½ΠΎΠΉ авторСгрСссии с ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΡΡŽΡ‰ΠΈΠΌΠΈΡΡ Π²ΠΎ Π²Ρ€Π΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΠΈ ΠΏΠ°Ρ€Π°ΠΌΠ΅Ρ‚Ρ€Π°ΠΌΠΈ (TVP-VAR). ΠŸΡ€ΠΎΠ²Π΅Π΄Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ΅ эмпиричСскоС исслСдованиС ΠΏΠΎΠΊΠ°Π·Ρ‹Π²Π°Π΅Ρ‚, Ρ‡Ρ‚ΠΎ Ρ†Π΅Π½Π° Π½Π° Π·ΠΎΠ»ΠΎΡ‚ΠΎ, политичСская Π½Π΅ΠΎΠΏΡ€Π΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ, Ρ†Π΅Π½Π° Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ ΠΈ Ρ„ΠΎΠ½Π΄ΠΎΠ²Ρ‹ΠΉ индСкс ΡΠ²Π»ΡΡŽΡ‚ΡΡ источниками Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ. Π’ Ρ‚ΠΎ ΠΆΠ΅ врСмя, Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ влияСт Π½Π° Ρ‚Π°ΠΊΠΈΠ΅ Ρ„Π°ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€Ρ‹, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΠ°Π»Π»Π°Π΄ΠΈΠΉ, ΠΏΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ½Π°, сСрСбро ΠΈ ΠΎΠ±ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½Ρ‹ΠΉ курс рубля. Рыночная капитализация являСтся чистым Π΄ΠΎΠ½ΠΎΡ€ΠΎΠΌ, Ρ€Ρ‹Π½ΠΎΠΊ сСрСбра β€” чистым ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡƒΡ‡Π°Ρ‚Π΅Π»Π΅ΠΌ. Палладий стал источником чистой Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ послС ΠΌΠΈΡ€ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ финансового кризиса. ΠΠ΅ΠΎΠΏΡ€Π΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ российской экономичСской ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡ‚ΠΈΠΊΠΈ Π±Ρ‹Π»Π° основным источником Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ с 2008 ΠΏΠΎ 2014 Π³Π³., ΠΎΠ΄Π½Π°ΠΊΠΎ впослСдствии Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ Π΄Ρ€ΡƒΠ³ΠΈΡ… Ρ„Π°ΠΊΡ‚ΠΎΡ€ΠΎΠ² ΠΎΠΊΠ°Π·Ρ‹Π²Π°Π»Π° Π½Π° Π½Π΅Π΅ большСС влияниС. Π’ 2014 Π³., ΠΊΠΎΠ³Π΄Π° Ρ†Π΅Π½Π° Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ Π·Π½Π°Ρ‡ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎ снизилась, Ρ†Π΅Π½Π° Π½Π° Π·ΠΎΠ»ΠΎΡ‚ΠΎ Π±Ρ‹Π»Π° основным источником Π²ΠΎΠ»Π°Ρ‚ΠΈΠ»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΠΈ для Π΄Ρ€ΡƒΠ³ΠΈΡ… Ρ€Ρ‹Π½ΠΊΠΎΠ². Полная ΡΠ²ΡΠ·Π°Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡ‚ΡŒ Ρ€Ρ‹Π½ΠΊΠΎΠ² Π² Π·Π½Π°Ρ‡ΠΈΡ‚Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½ΠΎΠΉ стСпСни зависит ΠΎΡ‚ ряда экзогСнных потрясСний, Ρ‚Π°ΠΊΠΈΡ… ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ экономичСскиС санкции, Π²Π²Π΅Π΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Ρ€Π΅ΠΆΠΈΠΌΠ° ΠΏΠ»Π°Π²Π°ΡŽΡ‰Π΅Π³ΠΎ ΠΎΠ±ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ курса, ΠΏΠ°Π΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Ρ†Π΅Π½ Π½Π° Π½Π΅Ρ„Ρ‚ΡŒ. Π˜ΡΡ…ΠΎΠ΄Ρ ΠΈΠ· прСдставлСнного Π°Π½Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·Π°, сформулировано нСсколько Ρ€Π΅ΠΊΠΎΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΄Π°Ρ†ΠΈΠΉ для ΠΏΠΎΡ€Ρ‚Ρ„Π΅Π»ΡŒΠ½Ρ‹Ρ… инвСсторов ΠΈ стСйкхолдСров Π² российских Ρ€Π΅Π³ΠΈΠΎΠ½Π°Ρ…

    Is Russia successful in attracting foreign direct investment? Evidence based on gravity model estimation

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    The aim of this paper is twofold. First, it is to answer the question of whether Russia is successful in attracting foreign direct investment (FDI). Second, it is to identify partner countries that β€œoverinvest” and β€œunderinvest” in the Russian economy. We do this by calculating potential FDI inflows to Russia and comparing them with actual values. This research is associated with the empirical estimation of factors explaining FDI flows between countries. The methodological foundation used for the research is the gravity model of foreign direct investment. In discussing the pros and cons of different econometric methods of the estimation gravity equation, we conclude that the Poisson pseudo maximum likelihood method with instrumental variables (IV PPML) is one of the best options in our case. Using a database covering about 70% of FDI flows for the period of 2001-2011, we discover the following factors that explain the variance of bilateral FDI flows in the world economy: GDP value of investing country, GDP value of recipient country, distance between countries, remoteness of investor country, remoteness of recipient country, level of institutions development in host country, wage level in host country, membership of two countries in a regional economic union, common official language, common border and colonial relationships between countries in the past. The potential values of FDI inflows are calculated using coefficients of regressors from the econometric model. We discover that the Russian economy performs very well in attracting FDI: the actual FDI inflows exceed potential values by 1.72 times. Large developed countries (France, Germany, UK, Italy) overinvest in the Russian economy, while smaller and less developed countries (Czech Republic, Belarus, Denmark, Ukraine) underinvest in Russia. Countries of Southeast Asia (China, South Korea, Japan) also underinvest in the Russian economy

    DETERMINANTS OF FDI INFLOWS: THE CASE OF RUSSIAN REGIONS

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    This paper empirically analyses the determinants of foreign direct investment inflows into the Russian regions. This problem has become highly relevant for the necessary modernization of the Russian economy after the recent economic slowdown and sharp decrease in budget revenues. The authors model foreign direct investment flows with the use of the gravity approach according to which investment flows are positively correlated with the size of the investor’s country as well as the size of the recipient region and are negatively correlated with the distance between investor and recipient. The empirical analysis is based on a constructed database consisting of the foreign direct investment flows from 179 investor countries into 78 Russian regions for the period 2006–2013. The authors apply the Poisson Pseudo Maximum Likelihood method and identify the following factors determining foreign direct investment inflows into the Russian economy: the gross domestic product of the investor’s country, the gross domestic product per capita in the recipient region, the distance from the investor to Moscow, the openness of the region, the economic situation in the region, the innovative capacity of the region and the foreign direct investment of the previous period. Interestingly, the distance from the recipient region to Moscow matters for the regions in the western part of Russia (relatively close to Moscow) but is not significant for the regions in the eastern part (remote regions)
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